Spotted Knapweed

Centaurea stoebe

Class A Noxious Weed

This plant is new to the state and has been designated a Class A Noxious Weed by the New Mexico Department of Agriculture.

Livestock Hazard

This plant presents a threat to the health and/or quality of livestock.
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Wildlife & Ecosystems

This plant is detrimental to native ecosystems, negatively impacting the quality of forage for wildlife and reducing biodiversity in plant communities.
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QUICK FACTS

Originally from central Europe, spotted knapweed was introduced to North America in the early 1800s. Since then, it has spread quickly across different ecosystems, threatening local plants and agriculture.
This perennial plant features striking purple or white flowers, which readily attract many pollinator species, including bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds.
Spotted knapweed is allelopathic and releases harmful compounds that suppress native grasses, significantly reducing forage availability for livestock. Its seeds can disperse widely, exacerbating its invasive spread.

1. Overview

family	Asteraceae – daisies & sunflowers	origin	Central Europe
life cycle	Perennial	other names	Panicled knapweed, Bushy knapweed

As you stroll through an abandoned field filled with vibrant clusters of purple flowers, you might initially mistake the plants for thistles. However, you are quite possibly observing a widespread invasion of spotted knapweed, an aggressive, noxious weed.

This invasive species was recorded in the Pacific Northwest in 1960 and identified in just 20 counties. Over the subsequent two decades, its reach expanded dramatically, more than doubling to include 48 counties by 1980. The problem escalated further over the years, and by 1999, spotted knapweed had invaded more than 326 counties across the western United States, including every county in Washington, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.

History of Spotted Knapweed

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe) is a perennial plant that originated in central Europe and adapted well to the local conditions. From there, it gradually spread eastward into regions such as the Caucasus, Russia, and Siberia. Its introduction to North America occurred in the early 1800s, primarily through contaminated alfalfa seed. This invasive species also found its way across the ocean via discarded soil, often used as ballast in ships, unknowingly bringing along a host of foreign plants. [1]

The first documented sighting of spotted knapweed in North America was in 1883, Victoria, British Columbia. After being introduced, the plant began to spread throughout the region. The problem was further exacerbated by the transportation of tainted alfalfa seeds and hay. It wasn’t long before people recognized the growing threat posed by spotted knapweed to local ecosystems, agriculture, and natural habitats, prompting further research and management efforts to control its spread. [1]

Today, spotted knapweed continues to spread and has been documented in all but four states across the U.S. The USDA has noted its presence in eight counties in New Mexico. As it propagates, spotted knapweed threatens native plant populations and disrupts agricultural practices nationwide. [4]

2. ID Guide

What does it look like?

Spotted knapweed is a showy biennial or short-lived perennial plant known for its striking purple flowers, though some variants showcase delicate white blooms. Flowers appear from June to October. Some may mistake spotted knapweed for a small thistle, but the plant is easily distinguished by its lack of sharp spines. [1,2]

Having trouble identifying a weed? Contact us.

Key Features

Plant: Low-to-the-ground basal rosettes reach up to 16 inches in diameter and are comprised of deeply lobed, nearly pinnate leaves up to 2 inches wide. Vertical growth from the rosette can reach 1 to 5 feet with multiple upright, branched stems loosely covered with gray hairs. [1]
Roots: Spotted knapweed has a deep taproot, which produces a new shoot each year. [7]
Leaves: The leaves of the plant are slightly hairy and deeply lobed, exhibiting a rich green color, and they decrease in size as they ascend the stem. The basal leaves have petioles (leaf stems), with blade sizes ranging from 4 to 6 inches and margins divided into linear or oblong segments. [1,2]
Flowers: The flowers grow in clusters with many small heads on long, slender stems. Each flower cluster has an oval-shaped protective layer and is about the size of a small grape. The outer bracts are usually pale green, sometimes with a hint of pink, and are ovate. These bracts often have noticeable lines running through them and can feel smooth or slightly fuzzy. The edges may have minor, dark, fringe-like features that make them stand out. Each flower head contains around 30 to 40 smaller flowers. These can be pink, purple, or white. The outer flowers, which don’t produce seeds, are a bit bigger, measuring around 0.6 to 1 inches, while the inner flowers producing seeds are smaller, measuring 0.5 to 0.6 inches. [1,2,5]
Seeds: The seed cases are light in color, either whitish or pale brown, and are covered with fine pinkish hairs. The fluffy part of the seeds that help with wind dispersal is made up of stiff white bristles that grow up to 0.2 inches long. [1,2,5]

Dmitry Kutcherov, inaturalist.org

Each flower cluster has an oval-shaped protective layer and is about the size of a small grape. The outer bracts are usually pale green, sometimes with a hint of pink.

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Low-to-the-ground basal rosettes reach up to 16 inches in diameter and are comprised of deeply lobed, nearly pinnate leaves up to 2 inches wide.

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Spotted knapweed has a deep taproot, which produces a new shoot each year.

Bruce Ackley, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org

The leaves of the plant are slightly hairy and deeply lobed, exhibiting a rich green color, and they decrease in size as they ascend the stem.

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Vertical growth from the rosette can reach 1 to 5 feet with multiple upright, branched stems loosely covered with gray hairs.

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

The seed cases are light in color, either whitish or pale brown, and are covered with fine pinkish hairs. The fluffy part of the seeds that help with wind dispersal is made up of stiff white bristles that grow up to 0.2 inches long.

3. Infestation Basics

“An iron-weed, content to share

The meanest spot that spring can spare;

Even roads, where danger hourly comes,

Are not without its purple blooms.”

-John Clare, 1897

Impacts

Where does it grow and how does it spread?

Spotted Knapweed prefers dry, sandy soils. It grows in natural and disturbed areas, including pastures, forests, fields, meadows, pastures, rangelands, mining areas, and gravel pits, and is commonly found along roads, railways, and trails.

In Europe, where it originated, spotted knapweed is most likely found in forest grasslands with dry, sandy, or well-drained soils. It has trouble competing with well-established grasses, especially in moist areas. In the western U.S., it grows in natural and disturbed areas where it receives little competition from desirable plants. It is commonly found along roads, railways, and trails. It has an impressively broad elevation range and can be found between 1,900 to over 10,000 ft. Seeds can be spread by many mechanisms, including wind and passing animals, which throw the seeds up to one yard from the original plant. Seeds can travel great distances in waterways, and when they become attached to animals, vehicles, and shoes or when consumed by birds and rodents. Seed spread also occurs often in contaminated hay and crop seed. [1]

Spotted knapweed is a perennial that can survive for up to nine years. Each year, it produces a large quantity of seeds, germinating under the right temperature, which typically ranges from 45 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit. Depending on environmental factors, a single square meter of spotted knapweed can yield anywhere from 5,000 to 40,000 seeds, with higher moisture levels leading to even greater seed production. [1]

The plant develops a strong root system during its juvenile rosette stage. As winter approaches, these rosettes die back, leaving only the root crown to survive the dormancy period. By early June, the plant begins to form flower buds, which bloom from July through September. By mid-August, the flowers have matured enough to produce viable seeds, and almost all of these seeds are dispersed by winter. [1]

Key takeaway: Spotted knapweed thrives in dry, sandy soils across a wide range of disturbed and natural areas, with its seeds spreading through various means like wind, animals, waterways, and human activity.

Why is it so invasive?

Spotted knapweed will readily move in where other plants have not. Highly adaptable, the plant keeps a low profile with a sparse, flat rosette and will likely go undetected until it has a well-developed root system.

After bolting, the plant quickly flowers and releases seeds into the surrounding area, where they can be carried long distances by passing creatures. Spotted knapweed ensures its own domination by releasing allelopathic compounds into the surrounding soil, stunting the growth of any competition. [1]

The presence of spotted knapweed will ultimately degrade the soil to the point where reestablishing healthy plant communities becomes difficult. This is why the most significant danger the weed poses is to livestock and wildlife, as it will push out and replace healthy forage areas while ensuring desirable grasses and herbs struggle to establish. [1]

Key takeaway: Spotted knapweed is a highly adaptable, low-profile weed that spreads quickly, degrades soil, and outcompetes native plants, threatening livestock and wildlife by replacing healthy forage areas.

Common risk factors for invasion

Open spaces: Favors open, sunny environments with little canopy cover, such as pastures, cultivated fields, and south-facing slopes. These conditions allow spotted knapweed to establish quickly and outcompete other plants. Maintaining healthy turf grasses and large-leafed forbs in these areas can help limit its spread.
Soil disturbance: Spotted knapweed loves to invade areas where soil has been disturbed, such as construction sites, tilled fields, or overgrazed pastures. This disruption weakens existing vegetation and allows the weed to become established. Minimizing unnecessary soil disturbance can help reduce the risk of invasion.
Areas of neglect: This plant often establishes itself in neglected or abandoned places, such as roadsides, railways, and vacant lots. These undisturbed spaces give it the time and opportunity to spread without competition. Regular monitoring and weed management in such areas can help mitigate this risk.

Livestock

Because it competes so aggressively, spotted knapweed is a serious threat to livestock forage. The plant releases a chemical compound called cnicin, which inhibits the growth of many native grasses. Studies show that spotted knapweed can reduce the yield of some native grasses by up to 88%, significantly limiting the amount of forage available for livestock. [1]

Wildlife Habitat

The continued spread of spotted knapweed harms wildlife as well as agriculture. Studies have shown that elk forage the land 98% less in knapweed-infested areas than in regions with native bunchgrass. This suggests that the weed significantly impacts elk, which depend on diverse forage species for year-round food. [1]

Erosion

The spread of spotted knapweed, which displaces native grasses, causes serious ecological problems. As these native grasses, such as blue grama and side oats grama in New Mexico, are replaced, it reduces the availability of forage for wildlife and livestock. Grasses are one of the most important factors for maintaining healthy soil, as they help to stabilize it and prevent erosion. Without them, the land becomes more vulnerable to flooding and fires. [1]

4. Management Strategies

Before attempting to eradicate this weed, long-term goals for land use should be set. Without a plan for effective revegetation, spotted knapweed, being a pioneer species, will quickly move back into a cleansed area, along with other undesirable weeds. To prevent spotted knapweed’s spread, it is important to remove plants before they flower and release seeds, especially along roadsides, trails, or other high-traffic areas. Mechanical control can include digging up plants or mowing them before they set seed, though this must be done consistently to be effective. [1]

DO’s

Monitor infestations regularly to catch new plants early and prevent further spread.
Reseed disturbed areas with native or desirable plants/crops after removing spotted knapweed to encourage healthy, competitive vegetation.
Remove plants before they flower to prevent seed production and spread.

DON’Ts

Ignore small infestations—spotted knapweed can spread rapidly, so early intervention is critical.
Allow seeds to disperse by failing to remove plants before they flower or by letting them go to seed.
Disturb the soil unnecessarily—this can create an environment favorable to the spread of spotted knapweed.

** The following information is provided courtesy of the UC Weed Research and Information Center. The Taos Soil and Water Conservation District does not endorse the use of any particular product, brand, or application thereof. **

Spotted knapweed can be managed without chemicals through a combination of manual removal, mowing, grazing, and site restoration. Hand-pulling and mowing work best before seed set, grazing with sheep or goats reduces growth, and reseeding with competitive native plants is essential to prevent reinfestation.

Hand pulling is feasible for scattered spotted knapweed plants, or for areas where other control methods are not feasible and sufficient labor is available. Generally, this form of control is limited to small infested areas. Repeated hand pulling is necessary during the season and over many years. Successful control has been reported when plants were hand removed 3 times a year (spring, summer, and late summer) over a period of 5 years. Every effort should be made to remove the entire taproot with little soil disturbance. If not possible, then cut the root 2 to 4 inches below the soil surface to remove much of the reproductive crown. Gloves should be worn when hand pulling. The best timing for hand removal is before plant produce viable seed. Hand pulling has not been effective in all areas. When soil dries, it may be difficult to remove the root crown and this can lead to rapid reestablishment.

Manual control methods may pose less risk to high quality waters and high value fisheries than do chemical applications. Although time- and labor-intensive, several manual control methods, including propane torching of seedlings early in the season, hand digging with small tools, mulching with black plastic, and mowing with weed eaters have proven successful for smaller populations.

Mowing typically doesn’t kill knapweeds; cut plants generally survive and recover to set seed. Plants mowed at the rosette stage will quickly recover, and mowing too late (after seed set) can disperse seed. However, mowing at the late bud to early bloom stage will reduce seed production. Mowing can also remove dead growth to improve herbicide coverage. A program of cutting only bolted plants, particularly in the early bloom stage, 2 to 4 times per year for several consecutive years can greatly suppress spotted knapweed and may shift the competitive balance in favor of desired grasses. Mowing is not possible in areas that are too rocky or steep, or with desirable shrub species.

Spotted knapweed does not persist under annual cultivation, which is why it is not typically a cropland weed. However, tillage in wildland or rangelands can spread spotted knapweed, because tillage creates an ideal weed seed bed.

Maintaining pasture and rangeland health by preventing overgrazing and minimizing disturbance can help limit knapweed establishment and spread.

Grazing is not considered to be an effective eradication method. In addition, intensive grazing can create ideal seedbeds for further invasion. However, researchers have shown that cattle, sheep and goats will readily graze spotted knapweed in early spring, suppressing seed production. Sheep are the most effective. Sheep typically graze spotted knapweed from the rosette through bud stage or when it is the only plant available. The timing of grazing may be critical to its success. Early and late-season grazing appear to be the most effective control timings with sheep: early season (spring) to reduce flower production, and late season (fall) to reduce density of young plants. In one study, two consecutive years of early and late sheep grazing prevented spotted knapweed seed production, and the sheep were healthy. In addition, this grazing program had little effect on the native grass community.

There is little information on the use of prescribed burning for control of spotted knapweed. On the one hand, burning has been shown to control diffuse knapweed while stimulating grass regrowth, and under the right conditions perhaps the same response might occur with spotted knapweed. On the other hand, spotted knapweed can be the first species to recover from a burn. A low-severity fire is not likely to kill the below-ground reproductive structures of spotted knapweed, but a severe fire may kill some of the plant crowns. Burning removes current growth but may enhance seed germination. Dry soil conditions at the time of burning can reduce germination. Another potential benefit of burning is that it can remove dead growth to improve the effect of herbicide applications.

Currently, there is no single biological control agent that effectively controls spotted knapweed populations. The banded gall fly (Urophora affinis), knapweed seedhead fly (U. quadrifasciata), lesser knapweed flower weevil (Larinus minutus), broad-nosed seedhead weevil (Bangasternus fausti) are established in the United States to date. The hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus) that primarily attacks yellow starthistle has also been reported on spotted knapweed. These insects cause plants to produce fewer viable seeds and to abort flowers. Larinus minutus in particular is an aggressive and effective biocontrol insect for diffuse and spotted knapweed. Its larvae may destroy up to 100% of the seeds in an infested seedhead. Larvae pupate in the seedhead; the adults emerge and consume the foliage until they enter the litter and soil to overwinter.

Three moth species (Agapeta zoegana, Pelochrista medullana, and Pterolonche inspersa) and a weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) that feed on spotted knapweed roots have also been released. Root-feeding insects may have a more detrimental effect on knapweed populations than seed-feeding ones. It is hoped that the collective stress on the plant caused by these insects will reduce seed production and lead to decreased competitiveness.

The following specific use information is based on published papers and reports by researchers and land managers. Other trade names may be available, and other compounds also are labeled for this weed. Directions for use may vary between brands; see label before use. Herbicides are listed by mode of action and then alphabetically. The order of herbicide listing is not reflective of the order of efficacy or preference.

2,4-D

Several names

Rate: 1 to 2 qt product/acre (0.95 to 1.9 lb a.e./acre)

Timing: Postemergence from rosette to beginning of bolting, or fall rosette. Optimal at early flowering stage.

Remarks: Control with 2,4-D is only temporary and does not prevent seedling establishment the following year. Generally requires repeat applications. 2,4-D is not considered as effective as other growth regulator herbicides for season-long control. Broadleaf-selective and may injure other non-target species, particularly crop plants. 2,4-D has no soil activity. Do not apply ester formulation when outside temperatures exceed 80°F. Amine forms are as effective as ester forms at the small rosette stage, and amine forms reduce the chance of off-target movement.

Aminocyclopyrachlor + chlorsulfuron

Perspective

Rate: 4.75 to 8 oz product (Perspective)/acre

Timing: Postemergence and preemergence. Postemergence applications are most effective when applied to plants from the seedling to the mid-rosette stage.

Remarks: Aminocyclopyrachlor gives control of spotted knapweed similar to aminopyralid. Perspective provides broad-spectrum control of many broadleaf species. Although generally safe to grasses, it may suppress or injure certain annual and perennial grass species. Do not treat in the root zone of desirable trees and shrubs. Do not apply more than 11 oz product/acre per year. At this high rate, cool-season grasses will be damaged, including bluebunch wheatgrass. Not yet labeled for grazing lands. Add an adjuvant to the spray solution. This product is not approved for use in California and some counties of Colorado (San Luis Valley).

Aminopyralid

Milestone

Rate: 5 to 7 oz product/acre (1.25 to 1.75 oz a.e./acre)

Timing: Postemergence and preemergence. Postemergence applications are most effective when applied to plants from the rosette to the bolting stage. Effective control can also be obtained with a fall application to new regrowth.

Remarks: Aminopyralid is one of the most effective herbicides for the control of spotted knapweed. It is safe on grasses, although preemergence application at high rates can greatly suppress invasive annual grasses, such as medusahead. Aminopyralid has a longer residual and higher activity than clopyralid. Other members of the Asteraceae and Fabaceae are very sensitive to aminopyralid. For postemergence applications, a non-ionic surfactant (0.25 to 0.5% v/v spray solution) enhances control under adverse environmental conditions; however, this is not normally necessary.

Other premix formulations of aminopyralid can also be used for spotted knapweed control. These include Opensight (aminopyralid + metsulfuron; 1.5 to 2 oz product/acre) and Forefront HL (aminopyralid + 2,4-D; 2 to 2.6 pt product/acre), both applied at the rosette to bolting stages.

Clopyralid

Transline

Rate: 0.67 to 1.33 pt product/acre (4 to 8 oz a.e./acre). Use higher rate for older plants or dense stands.

Timing: Applied preemergence to seedlings or postemergence to seedlings or mature plants, but generally optimal to apply postemergence in spring, at beginning of bolting up to the bud stage. Can also apply to fall regrowth. Results are best if applied to rapidly growing weeds.

Remarks: While clopyralid is very safe on grasses, it will injure many members of the Asteraceae, particularly thistles, and can also injure legumes, including clovers. Most other broadleaf species and all grasses are not injured.

Clopyralid + 2,4-D

Curtail

Rate: 2 to 4 qt Curtail/acre

Timing: Same as for clopyralid

Remarks: The addition of 2,4-D can increase the damage to other non-target broadleaf species. Add a non-ionic surfactant.

Dicamba

Banvel, Clarity

Rate: 1 to 2 pt product/acre (0.5 to 1 lb a.e./acre). Use higher rate for older plants or dense stands.

Timing: Postemergence from rosette to beginning of bolting, or fall rosette. Optimal at early flowering stage.

Remarks: Dicamba is a broadleaf-selective herbicide often combined with other active ingredients. It is not typically used alone to control spotted knapweed. Dicamba can also be mixed with 2,4-D (1 pt dicamba + 2 pt 2,4-D/acre) or picloram (1 to 2 pt dicamba + 0.5 to 1 pt picloram/acre) for spot treatments.

Dicamba is available mixed with diflufenzopyr in a formulation called Overdrive. This has been reported to be effective on spotted knapweed. Diflufenzopyr is an auxin transport inhibitor which causes dicamba to accumulate in shoot and root meristems, increasing its activity. Overdrive is applied postemergence to rapidly growing plants at 4 to 8 oz product/acre. Higher rates should be used on large annuals and biennials or when treating perennial weeds. Add a non-ionic surfactant to the treatment solution at 0.25% v/v or a methylated seed oil at 1% v/v solution.

Picloram Tordon 22K

Rate: 1 to 2 pt product/acre (4 to 8 oz a.e./acre). Use higher rates for older plants or dense stands.

Timing: Postemergence and preemergence. Postemergence applications are best at rosette to mid-bolting stage (before flowering to prevent current year seed production), or fall rosette stage. Apply when plants are growing rapidly. Under favorable growing conditions, application in summer can be effective if higher application volumes are used.

Remarks: Picloram is a broadleaf herbicide. It gives a broader spectrum of control than aminopyralid, aminocyclopyrachlor, and clopyralid, and has a much longer soil residual. Lower rates may require annual spot treatments. Treatment made in bud stage may not prevent seed production in the year of application. Picloram has been shown to provide selective control of spotted knapweed for 3 to 4 years. Although well-developed grasses are not usually injured by labeled use rates, some applicators have noted that young grass seedlings with fewer than four leaves may be killed. Do not apply near trees. Picloram is a restricted use herbicide. It is not registered for use in California.

Control with lower rates may be improved by tank mixing with dicamba or 2,4-D; picloram and dicamba (0.25 to 0.5 pt/acre + 0.125 to 0.25 pt/acre) and picloram plus 2,4-D (0.5 to 1 pt picloram + 1 to 2 pt 2,4-D/acre). A backpack sprayer or a wiper is recommended in small areas to minimize damage to non-target plants.

Glyphosate

Roundup, Accord XRT II, and others

Rate: Broadcast foliar treatment: 3 qt product (Roundup ProMax)/acre (3.375 lb a.e./acre). Spot treatment 1.5% v/v solution

Timing: Postemergence to rapidly growing knapweed when most plants are at bud stage.

Remarks: Glyphosate will only provide control during the year of application; it has no soil activity and will not kill seeds or inhibit germination the following season. Glyphosate is nonselective. To achieve selectivity, it can be applied using a wiper or spot treatment to control current year’s plants.

5. Citations

[1] Sheley, Roger L., and Janet K. Petroff. Biology and Management of Noxious Rangeland Weeds. Oregon State University Press, 1999.

[2] Blackwell, Laird. Great Basin: A Guide to Common Wildflowers of the High Deserts of Nevada, Utah, and Oregon. Falcon Guides, 2006.

[3] Woman, Bug. “Wednesday Weed – Greater and Common Knapweed.” Bug Woman – Adventures in London, 13 July 2020, bugwomanlondon.com/2020/07/15/wednesday-weed-greater-and-lesser-knapweed.

[4] “Centaurea stobe L.” U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2024, plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/CEST8. Accessed 27 Nov. 2024.

[5] Gagnon, Jennifer. “You Ain’t From Around Here! Invasive of the Quarter: Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea Stoebe Ssp. Micranthos).” Virginia Forest Landowner Update, vol. 35, no. 1, season-04 2021, forestupdate.frec.vt.edu/content/dam/forestupdate_frec_vt_edu/newsletter/archives/2021/GagnonKnapweed.pdf.

[6] Echo, Great Lakes, and Great Lakes Echo. “Invasive Species: Scourge to Some, Revenue to Others | Great Lakes Echo.” Great Lakes Echo | Environmental News of the Great Lakes Region, 21 Nov. 2024, greatlakesecho.org/2011/06/13/invasive-species-scourge-to-some-revenue-to-others.

[7] University of Nevada. “Managing Spotted Knapweed | Extension | University of Nevada, Reno.” Extension | University of Nevada, Reno, 2015, extension.unr.edu/publication.aspx?PubID=2390. Accessed 24 Jan. 2025.

Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org

Fun Facts

In Michigan, spotted knapweed is considered important to the local bee population and, subsequently, the honey industry. Beekeepers often defend this plant because it offers a source of nectar for honeybees, especially during the summer when other flowers are less abundant. Many beekeepers oppose efforts to remove spotted knapweed altogether, recognizing its value to their bees. They argue that getting rid of the plant could hurt honey production and threaten the health of bee populations that rely on it for food. [6]

Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Fun Facts

The name “centaurea” is thought to have derived from Chiron, the wise and skilled centaur from Greek mythology known for his healing abilities. According to legend, Chiron was struck by an arrow dipped in the deadly venom of the Hydra. In agony and searching for a cure, he turned to knapweed, a plant with remarkable healing properties. The plant helped to heal his wound and became a modern symbol of medicine. [5]

Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org

Fun Facts

This plant has played multiple roles in European and Mediterranean cultural practices, serving as a remedy for physical ailments and as a conduit for “love divination” among young women in Britain. Aside from snake bite cures, it has traditionally been used for topical wounds, indigestion, eye ailments, and as an appetite stimulant. [3]